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lüll Carotenoid beta-ring hydroxylase and ketolase from marine bacteria-promiscuous enzymes for synthesizing functional xanthophylls Misawa NMar Drugs 2011[]; 9 (5): 757-771Marine bacteria belonging to genera Paracoccus and Brevundimonas of the alpha-Proteobacteria class can produce C(4)(0)-type dicyclic carotenoids containing two beta-end groups (beta rings) that are modified with keto and hydroxyl groups. These bacteria produce astaxanthin, adonixanthin, and their derivatives, which are ketolated by carotenoid beta-ring 4(4')-ketolase (4(4')-oxygenase; CrtW) and hydroxylated by carotenoid beta-ring 3(3')-hydroxylase (CrtZ). In addition, the genus Brevundimonas possesses a gene for carotenoid beta-ring 2(2')-hydroxylase (CrtG). This review focuses on these carotenoid beta-ring-modifying enzymes that are promiscuous for carotenoid substrates, and pathway engineering for the production of xanthophylls (oxygen-containing carotenoids) in Escherichia coli, using these enzyme genes. Such pathway engineering researches are performed towards efficient production not only of commercially important xanthophylls such as astaxanthin, but also of xanthophylls minor in nature (e.g., beta-ring(s)-2(2')-hydroxylated carotenoids).|*Water Microbiology[MESH]|Alphaproteobacteria/*enzymology/genetics[MESH]|Genetic Engineering[MESH]|Mixed Function Oxygenases/genetics/*metabolism[MESH]|Oxygenases/genetics/*metabolism[MESH]|Xanthophylls/*biosynthesis[MESH] |